Three research projects carry out biodiversity research in developing countries. Their total volume for 1997-99 is approximately FIM 5 million.

Research topics include:

- management of biodiversity in the East Usambaras, Tanzania

- socio-economics of non-wood forest products

Tropical deforestation leads to an irreversible loss of biodiversity. In the developing countries, deforestation is caused by the expansion of agriculture and by unsustainable forest utilization. However, the rural people in these countries are heavily dependent on the products and services that forests can provide, for their susbsistence needs as well as for cash income.

The follow-up of the Rio 1992 Earth Summit has produced recommendations on activities that could lead to better conservation and more sustainable utilization of tropical forests. Some of the most important recommendations are summarized in the final report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) of 1997, which emphasizes the need to consider the man-environment interaction in all decisions concerning forests. In particular, the involvement of the local people in the conservation and sustainable utilization of forests is essential. Finland is actively promoting the development of better policies and national programmes that take into account the new global guidelines for forestry development. Therefore, the maintenance and build-up of relevant expertise in Finland for scientifically-based tropical forest conservation and management is also necessary.

A principal aim of the first phase of the present project was to clarify the process of recovery of a disturbed tropical rainforest ecosystem degraded by industrial timber harvesting and shifting cultivation but now protected for biodiversity conservation. The selected site was the East Usambara mountains in northeastern Tanzania, where the studies were carried out in close cooperation with the ongoing East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP), jointly implemented by the Finnish Forest and Park Service and Tanzanian authorities. The aim was also, with the active participation of the forest-adjacent rural communities and individual farmers, to study the local traditional agroforestry systems and the possibility to improve them for increased income generation and for decreasing the pressure on natural forests.

The rainforest recovery process was studied in plantations of an exotic, fast-growing tree species, Maesopsis eminii. This Central African species, earlier introduced as a commercial timber crop, was believed to pose a serious threat to the natural ecosystem of the new conservation area. However, it was found that the exotic tree was not as invasive as assumed earlier and, specifically, it cannot regenerate under a dense tree canopy. On the contrary, Maesopsis turned out to form a beneficial nurse crop for the naturally dispersed indigenous tree species, especially the late successional and primary forest species, many of which are endemic or near-endemic in the East Usambaras. In the tree plantations now studied, a total of about 200 indigenous tree and shrub species were identified. These results are in sharp contrast to the earlier assumptions concerning an invasive behaviour of Maesopsis and the perceived needs for its active eradication.

Existing data from 279 biodiversity inventory plots, each of 1,000 m² area, collected by the EUCAMP programme over the total forest reserve area of 22,000 hectares, are now also being analysed by the present FIBRE project for determining the dependence of rainforest tree species diversity on size-related tree attributes. Preliminary results indicate a strong positive correlation between tree size and tree species diversity, and they also demonstrate the importance of the higher canopy layers for biodiversity conservation in tropical rainforests.

Studies on traditional agroforestry in the home gardens of the forest-adjacent rural communities revealed an astonishing richness of man-made biodiversity. In the villages already investigated by the FIBRE project, nearly a hundred crop species were found, about half of which were trees. This allowed the modelling of these man-made production ecosystems using the concept of "functional groups" of intercropped species recently developed by W. Huang (referring, for instance, to the conservation value or economic value of a particular species). The agrosilvopastoral systems that combine agricultural, forest and livestock production were found to be of particular importance both for biodiversity conservation and for economic production. In addition, the recent introduction of black pepper to the home gardens of the East Usambaras seems to be promising for income generation; therefore, the future agroforestry studies will focus on this particular crop and on the multipurpose tree species used for support in pepper vine cultivation.

The present results on the behaviour of the potentially threatening plantation tree species in a protected rainforest ecosystem were immedially adopted by the conservation area management in the East Usambaras. This particular site is among the most important "hotspots" of exceptional biodiversity and endemism in the whole tropical region, which had been the reason for suggesting costly eradication schemes for Maesopsis; the present results confirmed that such schemes were redundant. In addition, the now established dependence of rainforest biodiversity on size-related tree attributes will strengthen the theoretical basis of biodiversity conservation in the East Usambaras and elsewhere.

Present findings on traditional agroforestry could improve the methodology for quantifying the biodiversity of man-made production ecosystems. Recommendations on best agroforestry practices will be made available to the forest-adjacent rural communities in the East Usambaras especially concerning the choice of multipurpose tree species to be used in black pepper cultivation.

This FIBRE project has been carried out in close cooperation with the EUCAMP programme, implemented in Tanzania by the Finnish Forest and Park Service and the Tanzania Ministry for Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism. The present research would not have been possible without the devoted contributions from the Finnish and Tanzanian EUCAMP staff. Contacts were also established between University of Helsinki and the researchers at the Sokoine Agricultural University at Morogoro, Tanzania, whose special interest is the socio-economic development of the rural communities in the East Usambaras in relation to forest policies. For clarifying the past long-term changes in land-use in the East Usambaras, collaboration was initiated with Professor Chris Conte and his coworkers at the Department of History, Utah State University, USA.

The present results were obtained in an exceptional situation where a globally significant tropical biodiversity conservation area already has been protected from further degradation. In the forthcoming studies, an additional aim is to contribute to forest biodiversity conservation also at more typical but simultaneously more difficult situations where forest degradation or deforestation continues and urgent new measures for ecosystem management and rehabilitation are needed.

1. Viisteensaari, J., Johansson, S., Kaarakka, V. & Luukkanen, O. 1999. Is the alien tree species Maesopsis eminii a threat to tropical forest conservation in the East Usambaras, Tanzania? Environmental Conservation (submitted).

2. Huang, W., Johansson, S., Luukkanen, O. Katigula, M.I.L. & Nashanda, M. Biodiversity and size-related attributes of tree species in tropical rainforests (incomplete manuscript).

3. Huang, W., Luukkanen, O. & Johansson, S. 1999. Agroforestry for biodiversity conservation of nature reserves: case study on the East Usambaras, Tanzania. Biological Conservation (submitted).

Professor Olavi Luukkanen, Dr.Sc. (Agr.&For.), M.Sc. (Genetics). University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology/Tropical Silviculture Unit; address Tropical Silviculture Unit, P.O. Box 28 (Koetilantie 3), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland. Tel. +358-9-19158643, fax +358-9-19158646; olavi.luukkanen(at) helsinki.fi

Stig Johansson, University of Helsinki

Wending Huang, University of Helsinki

Vesa Kaarakka, University of Helsinki

Jussi Viisteensaari, University of Helsinki

Satu Räisänen, University of Helsinki

Heini Vihemäki, University of Helsinki

Non-wood or non-timber forest products (NWFP) belong to that part of the biological diversity of the forests, which people directly can be use for purposes such as food (berries and mushrooms), medicine (medicinal plants) or for household utensils, handicraft and other technical purposes (juniper, rattan). Scientific interest in non-wood forest products has been growing especially in the nineties. Although many of the issues of NWFP-utilization are the same in the tropical and northern zones, they sometimes may strikingly differ. For example, in the tropics the biggest danger is overexploitation alongside of erosion of the unknown biodiversity due to deforestation while for some species in many areas of the boreal zone the major problem may be under-exploitation.

The core of this comparative study is to analyse the similarities and differences in the utilisation of NWFP under different economic and social structures in five countries in boreal and tropical realms (Finland, Russian Karelia, Estonia, the Philippines and Laos). The more detailed aims vary by countries but include the study of resource-dynamic aspects of selected non-wood forest products, evaluation of the subsistence and income-generating roles of the products and investigation of markets, trade and business structures of some products. Based on the comparative analysis the final aim is to contribute for the development of appropriate policy frameworks to support local level sustainability and national policies concerning non-wood forest products.

The study of resource dynamics is focused on the possibilities to develop expert based models and largely is concentrated on the Finnish part of boreal zone. Experiences gained by so far using slides and pairwise comparison technique indicate that regression models can be constructed where measured forest stand characteristics satisfactorily explain the yield assessments done by experts. Other expert based methods will be similarly experimented.

In Finland two national (with some local community level sub-samples) household surveys using mail questionnaire and concerning utilisation of four groups of NWFPs (wild berries, mushrooms, herbs, other products) were carried out in 1997 and in 1998. The national results concerning berries and mushrooms are available for the two years, both representing better than average biological crops.

In 1997 the Finnish households picked 56.5 million kg of wild berries (95% confidence limits were 52.5 and 60.6 million kg). In 1998 in total 49.7 million kg (44.0, 55.3) was picked. In 1997 the share of sold products was 27%. It is probable, that the amount of wild berries picked in 1997 is higher than any year before, although the lack of reliable earlier data does not allow to be entirely sure for that. (Saastamoinen et al 1999, submitted).

In Finland the structure and price trends of domestic and export markets has been analysed and show, that the markets of wild berries have changed. For example, domestic berries have lost their market share in industrial use to lower cost imported berries. In general, the decreasing price trends for berries collected for sale has been evident and threatens the profitability of picking – at the same time as also domestic berry processing is suffering from the lack of profitability (Kangas 1999).

In Russian Karelia the data has been collected concerning the picking of natural products in two rural villages and in the city of Petrozavodsk. In the two villages the emphasis in the use of non-wood forest products is for subsistence and surviving, and the share of sold products remained low. Urban picking shared the same motivation, but was often hindered by the lack of transportation to go to the forests. The smaller-scale data available from Estonia indicate a bit greater role of recreational and income generation activities. The income generating role of non-wood forest resources does not only depend on the availability of resources but also the on the location of community in the market chain. For example, in the Philippines , there is some concern within indigenous groups in Palawan that their handicraft using NWFPs sell for much less and in smaller quantities than comparable products from indigenous groups in Luzon, located better in relation to markets.

The preliminary results of the study have been applied as a base line information in formulating the goals and strategies of the multiple-use sector of regional forestry target programs. In all, 10 of the 13 regional forestry target programs done in 1998 in Finland were able to utilise the preliminary results. Also in the preparation the new Finnish national forestry program - Forest 2010 - the preliminary results were used in formulation of the recommendations for multiple-use forestry .

The National Natural Product Group of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has recently been established and is preparing a new national development programme (2000 – 2006) for natural products. The group has been served the final results concerning the picking of berries in Finland as soon as these were available and the results has also been introduced in the newsletter of the National Natural Product Group.

1. Kangas, K. 1999. Market structure and trade of wild berries in Finland. Silva Fennica vol 33 (2). (Saastamoinen, O. 1999. Changing forest policies to promote tangible non-wood forest products. Accepted manuscript to Unasylva FAO).

2. Saastamoinen, O. , Kangas, K. & Aho, H. 1999. Picking of Wild Berries in Finland in 1997 and 1998. Submitted manuscript.

Professor Olli Saastamoinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, phone +358 13 2513626, fax +358 13 2513590, olli.saastamoinen(at) joensuu.fi

Marjut Ihalainen, University of Joensuu, marjut.ihalainen(at) joensuu.fi

Paavo Kaimre, Lecturer, Estonian Agricultural University, Tartu, Estonia

Kari Kangas, Researcher, University of Joensuu, kari.kangas(at) joensuu.fi

Katri Karkinen, Researcher, University of Joensuu, katri.karkinen(at) joensuu.fi

Jukka Oksa, University of Joensuu, jukka.oksa(at) joensuu.di

Pertti Rannikko, University of Joensuu, pertti,rannikko(at) joensuu.fi

Timo Pukkala,University of Joensuu, jtimo.pukkala(at) joensuu.fi

Pekka Niemelä, University of Joensuu, pekka.niemela(at) joensuu.fi

Teuvo Pohjolainen,University of Joensuu, teuvo.pohjolainen(at) joensuu.fi

Anssi Niskanen, University of Joensuu,anssi.niskanen(at) joensuu.fi

Celeste Lacuna-Richman, University of Joensuu, , celeste.lacuna-richman(at) joensuu.fi

Elina Uitamo, Researcher, University of Joensuu, elina.uitamo(at) joensuu.fi

Janne Uitamo, Researcher, University of Joensuu, janne.uitamo(at) joensuu.fi

Yevgeni Klementyev, Researcher, Karelian Science Centre, Petrozavodsk, Russia

The Amazon Basin is one of the world’s most important centres of biodiversity. Major elements of this diversity are currently under threat due to deforestation and socio-economic change, which has caused an urgent need for a better understanding of the past and present biological processes that maintain and create the high species richness of the area. The current scientific concepts applied in environmental conservation in the Amazon Basin are largely handicapped by poor understanding of the basic geological, climatic and ecological processes of Amazonia. Lack of solid data on such components of biodiversity as biogeographic distributions, patterns of endemism, species richness and habitat diversity has led to the present widely speculative nature of biodiversity studies in Amazonia. This is effectively hindering conservation planning and sustainable use of biodiversity in the area.

This project takes a multidisciplinary approach in order to produce better understanding on the western Amazonian environment and aims at a deeper understanding of 1) the geological history of the Amazon Basin, 2) the implications of the geological history on biodiversity, 3) the extent of habitat diversity, 4) the degree of habitat specialization in plant species, 5) the genetical basis of adaptations to varying environmental conditions in fishes, 6) past and present land use patterns, and 7) how the new information can be applied to land-use planning, resource management and biodiversity conservation in Amazonia.

The main geological results show that during the Miocene about 25 to 10 Ma ago, western and central Amazonia were dominated by an epicontinental embayment connected to the Caribbean Sea. The aquatic deposits created in this environment, the Pebas/Solimoes Formation, form the substrate of modern lowland forests in a large part of western Amazonia. The environment varied repeatedly between semi-marine to lacustrine, very much alike the Great Interior Seaway of North America during Cretaceous times.

When the Pebas/Solimoes system retreated 10–8 Ma ago, the Amazon river established its present drainage direction, and since then tectonically influenced fluvial processes have characterized sedimentation in the area. The stratigraphy, spatial coverage, and edaphics of these fluvial sediments have already been worked out in Peru and a synthesis at Amazonian scale has also been prepared. The fluvial sediments of different ages show clear differences in mineralogy, geochemistry, weathering profiles and soils. Unlike the Pebas Formation, fluvial sediments contain feldspatic primary sands, in which inert residual clay minerals like aluminium-chlorite and kaolinite are formed upon release of potassium from feldspars and micas.

The distinction between fluvial terraces and the Pebas/Solimoes formation has been shown to be one of the most important environmental characteristics to be taken into account in order to understand plant species distribution patterns in unflooded rainforests of western Amazonia. Both within and between these geological units the most important determinants for plant species composition appear to be soil cation content and texture. It appears that these long-lasting edaphic gradients in western Amazonia have also contributed to the speciation of plants so that different populations have evolved into separate species by specialising in certain edaphic conditions. Evolutionary consequences of tectonically controlled fluvial dynamics were also observed in two cichlid fish genera in the form of specialisation in certain water chemistry and appearance of interspecific hybrids when chemically distinct rivers meet.

The heterogeneity of the western Amazonian soils and environment has its obvious constraints for land use. A case study of the surroundings of the city of Iquitos in northern Peruvian Amazonia has shown how the neglectance of edaphic constraints has lead to both environmental and economical losses during a recent road-building and colonization projects. On the other hand, agricultural activities that people have directed on the basis of historical practical experience on the best soils are capable in supporting long-term production. The myths of invariably fertile or infertile Amazonian soils is thus refuted and the question of land use management becomes a familiar one of optimizing the needs of production for human use with conservation needs and environmental constraints.

In very specific terms the results of our scientific studies have played an important role in the establishment of a new conservation area in northern Peruvian Amazonia close to the city of Iquitos. The area has been shown to include unique geological settings and vegetation formations with extreme mosaicism in edaphic conditions. This has contributed to both endemism (even two bird species new to science have recently been found in the area) and high alpha and beta diversity.

In more general terms we provide new insights into the origin and maintenance of Amazonian biodiversity, as well as new methodologies for biodiversity inventories, which has obvious practical implications to biodiversity management and conservation. Edaphic characterisation of the outcropping stratigraphical units in western Amazonia has indicated that vegetation types are indeed related to different soil characteristics in the area. These findings open new possibilities for integrated GIS-based use of stratigraphic and vegetation data in a hierachial way that may have great potential in the development of deductive vegetation sampling strategies as well as managing and analysing species diversity data in the tropics and elsewhere.

4. Key references

1. Kalliola, R. & Flores Paitán, S. (eds.). 1998. Geoecología y desarrollo amazonico: estudio integrado en la zona de Iquitos, Perú. Annales Universitatis Turkuensis Ser. A II, 544 pp.

2. Räsänen, M. & Irion, G. In press. Pleistocene and Holocene Amazonia. in: Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, Kuwert Akademic Publishers.

3. Tuomisto, H. 1998. What satellite imagery and large-scale field studies can tell about biodiversity patterns in Amazonian forests. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 85: 48–62.

Professor Jukka Salo, Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland, phone +358-2-3335777, fax +358-3335730, jukka.salo(at) utu.fi

Esa Huusela, Department of Biology, University of Turku, esa.huusela(at) utu.fi

Sanna-Kaisa Juvonen, Department of Biology, University of Turku, sanna-kaisa.juvonen(at) utu.fi

Risto Kalliola, Department of Geography, University of Turku, riskall(at) utu.fi

Ari Linna, University of Turku, ari.linna(at) utu.fi

Sanna Mäki, University of Turku, sanna.maki(at) utu.fi

Luisa Rebata, University of Turku, luireb(at) utu.fi

Mónica Romo, University of Turku, monica.romo(at) utu.fi

Kalle Ruokolainen, University of Turku, karuoko(at) utu.fi

Matti Räsänen, University of Turku, matti.rasanen(at) utu.fi

Leif Schulman, University of Turku, leischu(at) utu.fi

Ilari Sääksjärvi, University of Turku, ilari.saaksjarvi(at) utu.fi

Hanna Tuomisto, University of Turku, hantuo(at) utu.fi

Jaana Vormisto, University of Turku, jaavor(at) utu.fi